Un Giro Económico para Bolivia: Principales Hallazgos y Prioridades de Reforma

Esta publicación sintetiza los principales hallazgos y recomendaciones de la serie de investigaciones: Un giro económico para Bolivia. Examinamos los orígenes de la crisis actual y proponemos una estrategia para restablecer la estabilidad macroeconómica y, al mismo tiempo, apoyar el crecimiento de largo plazo. El colapso macroeconómico de Bolivia es el síntoma más visible de una crisis más profunda tras un deterioro institucional que debilitó la inversión privada, la capacidad exportadora y el crecimiento de la productividad en toda la economía. En respuesta, presentamos un plan integral de reformas basado en cinco pilares: 1) una consolidación fiscal creíble y que impulse el crecimiento; 2) una red de compensación social eficaz y focalizada; 3) el restablecimiento del equilibrio externo y de la credibilidad monetaria; 4) una renovada capacidad de atracción de inversiones para sectores exportadores; y 5) una base institucional que fomente el desarrollo de nuevas capacidades productivas. 

Bolivia’s Economic Pivot: Main Findings and Reform Priorities

This publication synthesizes the main findings and recommendations from a series of reports on Bolivia’s Economic Pivot. We examine the origins of the current crisis and propose a strategy to restore macroeconomic stability while supporting long-term growth. Bolivia’s macroeconomic collapse is the most visible symptom of a much deeper crisis. While the contraction of natural gas production was a key trigger, the country’s crisis stems from a broader institutional breakdown that weakened private investment, export capacity, and productivity growth across the economy. In response, we outline a comprehensive reform plan based on 5 pillars: 1) a growth-enhancing and credible fiscal consolidation; 2) an effective and targeted social compensation network; 3) a restoration of external balance and monetary credibility; 4) renewed investment attractiveness and restored export potential in strategic sectors; and 5) a new institutional foundation for developing new productive capabilities.

Un Giro Económico para Bolivia: La Gestación de la Crisis Macroeconómica

La crisis macroeconómica de Bolivia se fue gestando durante muchos años. Una bonanza temporal de materias primas en la década de 2000 y un sector gasífero construido en los años noventa dieron lugar a una década de crecimiento, mayores ingresos fiscales y una acumulación sin precedentes de activos externos. Pero, en lugar de aprovechar esa oportunidad para desarrollar nuevas fuentes de ingresos por exportaciones y aumentar la capacidad productiva, el país adoptó políticas que fueron debilitando gradualmente el mismo sector gasífero del que dependía el modelo. Cuando colapsaron la producción de gas y los ingresos por hidrocarburos, el Estado optó por preservar el gasto y el tipo de cambio fijo. El resultado fue una secuencia de medidas cada vez más costosas: primero la pérdida de reservas internacionales, luego el quiebre del régimen cambiario, el aumento del impuesto inflacionario y la represión financiera. En el proceso, el valor real de los ahorros de los bolivianos se fue erosionando a través del sistema de pensiones y de los depósitos bancarios. Este trabajo muestra cómo esa estrategia postergó el ajuste durante casi una década y terminó agravando la crisis. Mediante estimaciones contrafactuales del producto y del tipo de cambio real, cuantifica el costo de la demora y la magnitud de las distorsiones que cualquier programa de estabilización deberá ahora corregir. 

Bolivia’s Economic Pivot: The Making of a Macroeconomic Crisis

Bolivia’s macroeconomic crisis was long in the making. A temporary commodity windfall and a gas export engine built in the 1990s delivered a decade of growth, rising fiscal revenues, and an unprecedented buildup of foreign assets. But instead of using that window to build new sources of tradable income and productive capacity, the country adopted policies that gradually weakened the very gas sector on which the model depended. As gas production and hydrocarbon revenues fell, the state chose to preserve spending and the fixed exchange rate. The result was a sequence of increasingly costly stopgaps: first the depletion of international reserves, then the collapse of the peg, the rise of the inflation tax, and financial repression. In the process, households saw the real value of their savings eroded through the pension system and bank deposits. This paper shows how that strategy delayed adjustment for nearly a decade while making the eventual crisis more severe. Using counterfactual benchmarks for output and the real exchange rate, it quantifies the cost of delay and the scale of the distortions that any stabilization program must now unwind. 

Bolivia’s Economic Pivot: Early Macroeconomic Achievements and Remaining Challenges

This paper assesses Bolivia’s macroeconomic stabilization prospects through a macro-financial scenario framework, comparing three distinct trajectories: a counterfactual absent any reforms, the path under reforms implemented or announced to date (April 2026), and one that assumes a select set of additional reforms. Bolivia’s crisis, rooted in the absence of fiscal adjustment after the collapse of natural gas revenues, ranks among the most challenging in this century. Absent any reform, Bolivia was on the verge of a collapse, including a sharp contraction of imports, deep recession, runaway monetary financing, accelerating inflation, and a high probability of external default. The new government’s initial measures have reduced immediate risks. However, the initial reform package remains insufficient for full stabilization. The paper describes a feasible set of additional reforms to achieve stabilization and growth. An expansionary fiscal consolidation is still possible if reforms are carried out following a specific set of conditions, given Bolivia’s current economic constraints. Stabilization and growth are achievable, but the window of opportunity will narrow if critical reforms are delayed.

Un Giro Económico para Bolivia: Logros Macroeconómicos Iniciales y Desafíos Pendientes

Se evalúan las perspectivas de estabilización macroeconómica de Bolivia a través de un marco de escenarios macro-financieros, comparando tres trayectorias distintas: un contrafactual con ausencia de reformas, una trayectoria bajo las reformas implementadas o anunciadas hasta la fecha (abril de 2026), y una bajo un conjunto adicional de reformas específicas. La crisis de Bolivia, originada tras la ausencia de ajuste fiscal a pesar del colapso de los ingresos del gas natural, se encuentra entre las más desafiantes de este siglo. En ausencia de reformas, Bolivia se encontraba al borde de un colapso que incluiría una fuerte contracción de las importaciones, una profunda recesión, un financiamiento monetario descontrolado, una inflación acelerada y una alta probabilidad de cesación de pagos externos. Las medidas iniciales del nuevo gobierno han reducido los riesgos inmediatos. Sin embargo, el paquete inicial de reformas sigue siendo insuficiente para lograr una estabilización sostenible en el tiempo. Se describe un conjunto factible de reformas adicionales para lograr la estabilización y el crecimiento, y se evalúan los propspectos de una consolidación fiscal expansiva dadas las restricciones económicas actuales de Bolivia. La estabilización y el crecimiento son alcanzables, pero la ventana de oportunidad se irá cerrando si se demoran las reformas críticas.

Serving From Hermosillo: Opportunities in Cross-Border Trade of Services

Technological advances have increased the general tradability of services, leading international trade in services to outpace trade in goods, especially after the global financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic. Services once considered less tradable due to the necessity of physical proximity between consumer and provider are now increasingly digitized and delivered remotely. Cross-border services now represent 79% of all internationally traded services, and digitally deliverable activities like engineering, accounting, database and other information services are experiencing yearly U.S. imports growth rates over 15%. This report analyzes how Mexico has been capitalizing on some of these trends over the past five years using the most granular data available. Then, we analyze opportunities from the perspective of Hermosillo. 

Hermosillo is poised to benefit from this global expansion due to its comparative advantages and existing productive capabilities in potentially tradeable services. We estimate the revealed comparative advantage of Hermosillo in each tradeable service category and find that the city is better positioned than similarly rich and complex cities in Mexico to take advantage of several of these opportunities. This is because Hermosillo is currently intensive in these opportunities, and also because Hermosillo has other industries that are similar to the opportunities in terms of their occupational structure (which could potentially supply additional labor in case tradeable service industries were to expand rapidly). Moreover, Hermosillo’s wage differentials compared to the U.S. are significant for most industries and occupations, including all tradable service industries and teleworkable occupations. This provides a cost advantage for foreign firms seeking to outsource part of their operations. Hermosillo also boasts a well-educated workforce with high levels of schooling and a strong emphasis on STEM fields, positioning it well to meet a potential expansion in educated labor demand. 

Some tradable services represent bigger opportunities for Hermosillo, but the city will need to develop new capabilities in cross-border service provision in order to take advantage of them. In particular, engineering services, database and other information services, business and management consulting, research and development, education, and accounting services require attention and further research to inform effective strategies. To realize these opportunities, local firms may need to overcome sector-specific challenges related to internationalization. Policymakers can play a pivotal role by fostering strategic partnerships, attracting multinational service providers to bring in knowhow, and creating supportive enabling environments for teleworking and digital service provision.

Growth Through Diversification in Hermosillo

In this report, we study Hermosillo’s economic performance and assess critical issues affecting the city’s ability to achieve stronger economic growth. Although Hermosillo is far from experiencing economic stagnation, it fell behind other cities that managed to become successful economic hubs between 2010 and 2020. The main reason behind this trailing growth is Hermosillo’s relatively low diversification and investment dynamics, especially in the manufacturing sector. We apply growth diagnostic testing on various potential constraints to economic growth: logistics, electricity, water, human capital, housing, and transportation. Although none of them have directly constrained economic growth in the past, some are explicit threats to increasing growth in the future, thus catching up with high-performing peers. Electricity, human capital, and logistics are comparative advantages, while water, housing, and transportation are threats. 

In 2025, Mexico is expected to start a new period in its economic history marked by the promise of nearshoring and a new presidential administration. In the past, Mexico has gone through milestones that heavily impacted its economic development path, like the establishment of NAFTA and the China Shock (Hanson, 2010). The rise of Northern Mexico and other regions like El Bajío as global manufacturing hubs has resulted from greater integration with the North American market. This has brought foreign direct investments (FDI) targeted at establishing manufacturing sites primarily to cater to US demand and exports to the rest of the world. Mexico holds high expectations that nearshoring will bring opportunities of the same or greater magnitude. In that context, Hermosillo stands out as a city with the potential to exploit those opportunities and enhance its economic transformation. It is crucial to analyze its binding constraints for economic growth, comparative advantages, and potential concerns to understand how well-positioned Hermosillo is to take advantage of this momentum. 

Following the introduction and a methodological overview, the report is divided into four main sections. Section 3 provides a growth perspective on Hermosillo; Section 4 presents an analysis of growth constraints; Section 5 explains the local diversification challenge in detail; and Section 6 describes strategic policy areas to accelerate growth that result from this growth diagnostic analysis. 

Japan’s Economic Puzzle

This paper examines Japan’s economic performance in recent years, uncovering a narrative that challenges conventional views. Despite slow productivity growth, Japan maintains the highest economic complexity globally due to its sophisticated export portfolio. The study reveals that while Japan has been experiencing a decline in goods export market shares it has had a rise in services exports, particularly in R&D licensing. Furthermore, Japan has significantly increased its net foreign assets and direct investments abroad, resulting in abnormal high returns. These results put together suggest that Japanese firms —perhaps in reaction to a stagnant domestic labor force—are leveraging their extensive knowledge capital by investing and redeploying resources internationally, which are generating these higher returns. The increasing wealth generated abroad results, we show, in an expansion of non-tradable activities which are less productive, driving down aggregate productivity growth. The paper also highlights concerns over declining innovation quality, posing risks to Japan’s future economic performance and its ability to redeploy its accumulated knowledge to enjoy from unusually high returns from their foreign investments. The findings emphasize the need for policy reforms to enhance innovation quality to sustain Japan’s productivity of non-tradable activities and with an immigration policy that may change the downward trend in labor supply.