Un Giro Económico para Bolivia: Desbloqueando el Potencial Minero y del Litio

El sector minero de Bolivia alberga un potencial excepcional. El país posee una de las mayores reservas de litio del mundo, ocupa el quinto lugar en producción mundial de plata y es el cuarto mayor exportador de zinc. Sin embargo, la producción ha estado estancada por más de una década: ninguna mina de gran escala ha entrado en producción desde 2014, y el crecimiento de las exportaciones refleja el alza de precios, no un aumento de la producción. El entorno regulatorio es la restricción central: los contratos administrativos no pueden transferirse ni usarse como garantía, grandes áreas están reservadas para empresas estatales, y el retiro de Bolivia del arbitraje internacional ha debilitado la protección al inversor. Las cooperativas y las empresas privadas coexisten sin un marco para la colaboración formal, lo que genera conflictos y distorsiones fiscales. Aproximadamente el 60% del territorio boliviano permanece sin explorar geológicamente, lo que eleva el riesgo de exploración y limita el descubrimiento de nuevos yacimientos. Esta publicación propone una agenda de reforma que abarca las dimensiones regulatorias, institucionales y fiscales del sector, con especial atención al litio como la oportunidad sin explotar más significativa de Bolivia.

Un Giro Económico para Bolivia: Oportunidades y Desafíos en Agricultura

El sector agropecuario de Bolivia ha crecido más rápidamente en las últimas dos décadas que en cualquier otro período desde 1960, pero ese crecimiento ha estado impulsado por la expansión de la superficie cultivada más que por mejoras en la productividad. El régimen de políticas públicas ha restringido las exportaciones y ha desaprovechado un gran potencial. Los rendimientos de cultivos clave continúan por debajo de los de otros países pares en la región, y la expansión sostenida de la superficie cultivada implica riesgos tanto de costos ambientales como de una menor inserción en mercados internacionales, ya que éstos penalizan más los productos vinculados a la deforestación. A través de análisis comparativo, casos de estudios sobre los principales cultivos de Bolivia, y lecciones sobre la diversificación agrícola del Perú, este análisis identifica un conjunto recurrente de restricciones. Entre ellas, las limitaciones al uso de semillas transgénicas, la debilidad de la investigación y desarrollo y de los servicios de extensión, las brechas fitosanitarias y logísticas, y la falta de riego con orientación comercial. Dado que estas restricciones interactúan de manera distinta según la diversa geografía agrícola de Bolivia, proponemos poner en marcha una Estrategia Nacional para el Potencial Agropecuario que permita a cada una de las distintas regiones agrícolas del país alcanzar su frontera productiva. La diversificación de las exportaciones surgiría como un resultado natural en la medida en que más regiones de Bolivia logren desarrollar su potencial, generando divisas adicionales que son necesarias para aliviar la crisis macroeconómica que actualmente atraviesa el país.

Bolivia’s Economic Pivot: Agricultural Potential and Challenges

Bolivia’s agricultural sector has grown faster over the past two decades than in any period since 1960, but this growth has been driven by the expansion of cultivated area rather than by improvements in productivity, while the prevailing policy regime has restricted exports and left significant potential unrealized. Yields for key crops continue to underperform regional peers, and continued expansion of the agricultural frontier risks both environmental costs and reduced access to international markets that increasingly penalize deforestation-linked products. Drawing on cross-country comparisons, case studies of Bolivia’s major crops, and lessons from Peruvian agricultural diversification, this analysis identifies a recurring set of production- and market-side constraints, including restrictions on transgenic seeds, weak R&D and extension services, phytosanitary and logistics gaps, and the lack of commercially-oriented irrigation. Because these constraints interact differently across Bolivia’s diverse agricultural geography, we propose launching a National Strategy for Agricultural Potential to enable each of Bolivia’s distinct agricultural regions to reach its productive frontier. Export diversification would emerge as a natural outcome as more of Bolivia’s regions realize their potential, generating the additional foreign exchange needed to ease the country’s ongoing macroeconomic crisis.

Un Giro Económico para Bolivia: Un Diagnóstico de Crecimiento del Sector Turístico

El turismo representa una oportunidad estratégica para que Bolivia genere divisas y promueva un crecimiento más inclusivo. Este informe busca dimensionar esa oportunidad, identificar sus restricciones más vinculantes y proponer soluciones a ellas. Utilizando un modelo de gravedad del turismo internacional, encontramos que Bolivia tiene una brecha de más de 370 millones de dólares frente a su potencial. Nuestro diagnóstico identifica dos restricciones principales. A nivel nacional, la escasa conectividad aérea internacional limita el acceso de Bolivia a mercados clave. Recomendamos un paquete de reformas para mejorar la competitividad del sector aeronáutico y ampliar el acceso aéreo. A nivel local, las fallas de coordinación y los problemas de gobernanza dificultan la consolidación de ecosistemas turísticos, particularmente evidenciado en el circuito del Salar de Uyuni. Proponemos una nueva arquitectura de gobernanza a nivel de destino para facilitar la coordinación, alinear incentivos y generar mayores beneficios para las comunidades locales.

Bolivia’s Economic Pivot: A Growth Diagnostics of the Tourism Sector

Tourism represents a strategic opportunity for Bolivia to generate foreign exchange and support more inclusive growth. This report aims to quantify the opportunity, identify binding constraints and propose solutions. Using a gravity model of international tourism, we find that Bolivia performs significantly below its potential with an unrealized gap of more than USD 370 million. Applying Growth Diagnostics heuristics, we identify two constraints and suggest policy responses. At the national level, weak international air connectivity limits Bolivia’s access from key source markets. Accordingly, the report recommends a package of reforms to improve aviation competitiveness and air access. At the local level, coordination failures and governance issues hinder the emergence of strong tourism ecosystems, particularly in the Salar de Uyuni circuit. We propose a new destination-level governance architecture to facilitate coordination, align incentives, and deliver stronger benefits for local communities.

The Cube: A Lawful, Incremental Framework for Using Public Procurement to Pull Innovation 

Governments already spend large sums to promote innovation through grants, tax credits, loans, equity instruments, incubators, prizes, and advisory programs. Yet public procurement is vastly larger than conventional innovation-policy budgets. In OECD economies, procurement is roughly 13 percent of GDP, while direct support and tax relief for business R&D together are only a fraction of one percent of GDP. This asymmetry matters. Even a very small innovation-oriented tilt in procurement can represent a material increase in the effective scale of innovation policy. 

Yet procurement systems are rarely used this way. Most public procurement organizations are designed to secure timely delivery, preserve integrity, ensure equal treatment of suppliers, and obtain value for money. They are not designed to explore technological uncertainty, nurture early markets, or orchestrate experimentation with new solutions. Procurement officers are typically judged on compliance, continuity of service, and avoidance of visible failure. Under those incentives, the safe equilibrium is predictable: detailed specifications, strong threshold requirements, large established suppliers, price-dominant competitions, and risk transfer to vendors wherever possible. 

This report argues that governments do not need to choose between lawful procurement and innovation policy. They can make procurement more innovation-friendly without abandoning core procurement principles. The relevant question is not whether procurement law should be suspended in the name of innovation. The relevant question is how familiar and lawful procurement tools can be reframed so that public buyers learn about technological possibilities, reduce uncertainty, validate solutions, and scale what works. 

This is the purpose of The Cube. 

Mapping Economic Opportunities in Global Clean Energy Supply Chains 

The energy transition offers countries that can manufacture clean energy technologies substantial opportunities for sustainable economic growth. This paper provides a framework for context-aware industrial policy by applying economic complexity theory to a newly constructed dataset of twelve key clean energy supply chains (CESCs). We find that CESCs are diverse but highly interdependent; they are also growing faster and are more concentrated than other industries. CESCs exhibit substantial entry, exit and competitive churn, and countries are more likely to enter CESC industries that are related to their existing productive capabilities. We also explore changing global competitiveness and country positioning in these industries, and draw out implications of these patterns for industrial policymakers.

De Facto Openness to Immigration

Various factors influence why some countries are more open to immigration than others. Policy is only one of them. We design country-specifc measures of openness to immigration that aim to capture de facto levels of openness to immigration, complementing existing de jure measures of immigration, based on enacted immigration laws and policy measures. We estimate these for 148 countries and three years (2000, 2010, and 2020). For a subset of countries, we also distinguish between openness towards tertiary-educated migrants and less than tertiary-educated migrants. Using the measures, we show that most places in the World today are closed to immigration, and a few regions are very open. The World became more open in the first decade of the millennium, an opening mainly driven by the Western World and the Gulf countries. Moreover, we show that other factors equal, countries that increased their openness to immigration, reduced their old-age dependency ratios, and experienced slower real wage growth, arguably a sign of relaxing labor and skill shortages.

Explore the country rankings in our interactive visualization website and learn more about the project, Leveraging the Global Talent Pool to Jumpstart Prosperity in Emerging Economies.

Growth Through Diversification in Hermosillo

In this report, we study Hermosillo’s economic performance and assess critical issues affecting the city’s ability to achieve stronger economic growth. Although Hermosillo is far from experiencing economic stagnation, it fell behind other cities that managed to become successful economic hubs between 2010 and 2020. The main reason behind this trailing growth is Hermosillo’s relatively low diversification and investment dynamics, especially in the manufacturing sector. We apply growth diagnostic testing on various potential constraints to economic growth: logistics, electricity, water, human capital, housing, and transportation. Although none of them have directly constrained economic growth in the past, some are explicit threats to increasing growth in the future, thus catching up with high-performing peers. Electricity, human capital, and logistics are comparative advantages, while water, housing, and transportation are threats. 

In 2025, Mexico is expected to start a new period in its economic history marked by the promise of nearshoring and a new presidential administration. In the past, Mexico has gone through milestones that heavily impacted its economic development path, like the establishment of NAFTA and the China Shock (Hanson, 2010). The rise of Northern Mexico and other regions like El Bajío as global manufacturing hubs has resulted from greater integration with the North American market. This has brought foreign direct investments (FDI) targeted at establishing manufacturing sites primarily to cater to US demand and exports to the rest of the world. Mexico holds high expectations that nearshoring will bring opportunities of the same or greater magnitude. In that context, Hermosillo stands out as a city with the potential to exploit those opportunities and enhance its economic transformation. It is crucial to analyze its binding constraints for economic growth, comparative advantages, and potential concerns to understand how well-positioned Hermosillo is to take advantage of this momentum. 

Following the introduction and a methodological overview, the report is divided into four main sections. Section 3 provides a growth perspective on Hermosillo; Section 4 presents an analysis of growth constraints; Section 5 explains the local diversification challenge in detail; and Section 6 describes strategic policy areas to accelerate growth that result from this growth diagnostic analysis. 

How Wyoming’s Exodus of Young Adults Holds Back Economic Diversification

Wyoming is a rural Mountain West state with a high Gross State Product (GSP) per capita, foremostly driven by its fossil fuel sector. The state’s longstanding strengths in resource extraction provide much of its livelihood, including both its private earnings and public finances. Its other industries are comparatively much smaller, but Wyoming would benefit from their expansion in order to smooth out resource-related shocks going forward. Importantly, Wyoming should think on a big scale when considering such opportunities. Middling, business-as-usual growth in its non-resource sectors will not fundamentally do much to insulate Wyoming’s economy against resource busts.

One category of diversification opportunities to consider are those in industries tied to the natural endowments of the land. Wyoming generally does well in these sectors, but prospects of further expansion are either highly uncertain or limited in scale. Some of the most promising opportunities are in new energy and critical minerals, but these carry significant technological uncertainty and/or modest income potential. Transformative growth in agriculture is likely to be difficult because Wyoming faces hard constraints on its water consumption, and its tourism income per capita is already among the very highest of any US states. Adding value to raw materials is a commonly-discussed strategy that, in practice, does not work well in the modern economy because raw materials are often easily traded over long distances.

While it is therefore vital for Wyoming to pursue economic activities related to its natural endowments, it must also look to its advanced services and manufacturing sectors. Wyoming is a severe laggard in these industries versus other states, and serious action is needed to generate the large pools of skilled labor that they need to succeed. There is widespread recognition that Wyoming is behind on this matter, and the state has made critical investments in education to bridge this gap. The missing ingredient, however, is keeping young people and families in the state. By the time people born in Wyoming reach their thirties, nearly two thirds have left – one of the highest rates in the country. Without access to this workforce, it is exceedingly difficult for the Wyoming economy to diversify.

Empirically, young Wyomingites and families overwhelmingly leave the state in favor of larger cities. University of Wyoming graduates especially are attracted to large cities a few hours’ drive away from Laramie, Wyoming (where the University of Wyoming is located). These destinations include Fort Collins and Denver. Even if it wanted to, Wyoming could not wave a magic wand to create a large urban metropolis overnight, and it is therefore necessary to understand what specifically attracts young adults and families to these big cities instead of Wyoming towns so that the latter can compete better.

The evidence shows that housing is a surprisingly important factor related to migration decisions on which Wyoming underperforms. Young adults fresh out of university often prefer to live in centrally-located apartments, so that they are close to jobs, restaurants, and friends. Wyoming towns, however, lack dense multi-family housing in their downtown cores as compared to other US towns with very similar overall population. This lack of dense downtown housing suitable for young people contributes to an overall housing supply deficiency, thereby driving up housing prices across the board. It also entails depressed foot traffic in downtowns, leading to fewer customers for local businesses and ultimately fewer urban amenities like restaurants versus Colorado communities – a key result given that surveyed University of Wyoming students report that restaurants are their top desired urban amenity.

The main reason there is not denser housing in Wyoming downtowns is because strict regulations have illegalized them. A plethora of restrictions exist around issues like minimum lot sizes, maximum building heights, minimum parking space requirements, maximum dwellings per unit of area, and more. Studies show that Wyoming is more overregulated than other communities when it comes to restrictions on housing density. Other places successfully leave these decisions to the free market rather than government, and Wyoming could remove these restrictions to increase its supply of housing for young people at no cost. There is additionally a lack of funding for arterial infrastructure in Wyoming, such as water and sewage lines, which drives up development costs.

A general lack of funding for community assets arguably also affects young peoples’ and families’ migration decisions. There is evidence that community demand for investment outstrips supply in water and transport infrastructure, and that many counties use allotted sales tax expansions (“Penny Taxes”) very frequently. One way Wyoming could direct more funding to its local communities is via an expanded grants management system; Wyoming gets less federal grant funding per person than other rural US states, and based on interviews this is tied to a lack of dedicated staff who can navigate the significant overhead associated with following and applying for grants.

Overall, while Wyoming is currently a laggard on advanced service and manufacturing industries there are concrete steps it could take to compete better by retaining more of its young people. Wyoming’s Pathways to Prosperity economic development project has already enacted a number of changes to support that outcome, but more can be done. With denser downtowns and more funding for community assets, Wyoming would bolster both its economic and cultural vitality by keeping its young people and leveraging them to obtain growth in new industries.

Related project: Pathways to Prosperity in Wyoming